Fig. 1

Cough hypersensitivity as a neuro-immune interaction. Schematic presentation of interrelationships between major components in cough reflex pathway, particularly in relation to neuro-immune interaction (marked as bold fonts, closed circles, box, and blue lines). Inhalational triggers may stimulate each of peripheral nervous and immune systems. Activated vagal sensory neurons may induce subsequent immune activation (neurogenic inflammation). Also activated immune systems lead to the up-regulation of cough responses (peripheral sensitization). Further interactions are mediated by communicating mediators and shared danger recognition systems between two systems. Nasal afferents may play modulatory roles in cough hypersensitivity. Modified with permission from Asia Pac Allergy 2014;4:3–13 [19]