Fig. 4

Pharmacodynamic measurements after administration of epinephrine or saline via different injection types and locations. Profiles of mean (a) heart rate, (b) systolic blood pressure, and (c) diastolic blood pressure at baseline and after epinephrine administration via EpiPen at the mid-AL thigh (N = 35), epinephrine administration via IM syringe at the mid-AL thigh (N = 35), saline administration via IM syringe at the mid-AL thigh (N = 35), and epinephrine administration via EpiPen at the distal-AL thigh (n = 23). Asterisks reflect significant changes (P < 0.05) relative to median baseline values. Error bars are the standard error of the mean. AL anterolateral, EpiPen EpiPen Auto-Injector, IM intramuscular